This policy paper proposes a multifaceted approach to address the plastic pollution in  the rivers along with the analysis of legal frameworks of Nepal. The major objective of this study includes promotion of  household waste segregation along with managed waste collection from the governmental sectors. This report aims to discuss methods of plastic waste reduction in rivers along with the possibility of extraction in the existing rivers for the flow of clean water. Technological innovations like Great Bubble  Barriers, drones, startups, and collaborative approaches with neighboring countries, including Extended  Producer Responsibility (EPR), can be effective for this cleanup. Addressing plastic pollution requires coordinated efforts across policy, technology, and community engagement to restore river health and safeguard environmental  and public well-being. 

Introduction
Nepal has been facing a growing challenge in managing plastic waste, as the imports generated 380000 tons of plastic and domestic production added another 165000 tons in the fiscal year 2021/22 alone ( Aryal, I, 2024). Our rivers carry the extra baggage of plastic waste, some making their way to seas and many remaining in the rivers  for many years hampering the water ecosystem. The total waste of Nepal consists of 16% of plastic waste with daily plastic waste averaging 2.7 tons causing significant environmental harm (Molden et al., 2018). The widespread use of plastics including polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate  PET), polyamide, polystyrene (PS), and polyester is leading to degradation in environment and higher level of pollution in various water resources (Maharjan, 2024). Such plastic particles greatly impact soil, water resources and most importantly public health. Almost all the water resources of Kathmandu Valley are contaminated with solid waste, sewage, and  plastics. 

The major effects of plastic particles are evident on river ecosystems; mainly on the health of fish i.e. intestinal blockage, reproductive problems and general body weakening which hampers the ecological balance making them more vulnerable to predators. Furthermore, the degradation of larger plastic items into tiny microplastics poses an additional threat, as tiny particles can be consumed by a large range of organisms; disturbing the food chain (Alberghini, 2023). Humans, while consuming unhealthy fish, risk their health. Various activities including bans on plastics have also been initiated by the government; however, the result seems  unsatisfying, including the campaign organized for cleaning the rivers. Rivers also play a significant role in  ecological balances, tourism, health and accessibility of drinking water. 

Problem Identification
The major problem of plastic waste arises due to loose plastics like bags, which often end up in rivers due to  their low recycling value and lack of proper waste segregation process at the household level. Culturally, the  people of Nepal are habituated to mixing all kinds of waste into single bags which is supported by the  absence of regular collection services. Informal recycling sectors is one of the major problems. Low-value  plastics such as polypropylene and multi-layered plastics are often discarded because they are hard to clean  in the recycling process, leading to their illegal deposition in rivers. Many businesses, especially those 

located at river sides frequently dispose of their waste into rivers due to inadequate waste management.  Another major problem is service gaps between municipalities  and increasing households in urban areas that result in the dumping of waste along the riverbanks by the natives, which are seen during disruptions in waste collection services, like  strikes or landfill closures (Parasai, 2022). The people from rural areas and semi-rural areas also face a limited  scope of waste collection leading to burning and disposal of it in water resources. 

The seasonal monsoon also plays a significant role as  heavy rains lead to increased runoff, carrying plastic waste from urban areas to the rivers (Maharjan &  Wrobely, 2020). The volume of waste entering the rivers increases dramatically during the monsoon seasons. The community is unaware and not taking the responsibility collectively to  clean the resources for future generations is increasing the waste in which rapid urbanization plays a  significant role. In some communities, traditional disposal methods are used such as burning or dumping waste into rivers which persists exacerbating plastic pollution. The wastewater treatment equipment is also not  enough to improve the quality of water by 2040 pointing to the requirement for additional countermeasures  (Maharjan & Wrobely, 2020). 

Policy Objective
The major objective of this paper is to address the key challenges of plastic waste pollution in Nepal’s river  by improving waste segregation practices at the household level, enhancing the recycling process for low value plastics strengthening the municipal waste management infrastructure, and mitigating the risks of  flood during the monsoon seasons by reduction of many illegal sand mining, housing and capture of land.  Some of the major objectives that this policy paper carries are: 

Key Goals:
1. Promotion of Waste Segregation at the household level: Implementing a plan of nationwide programs to educate households on the importance and effects of waste  segregation to have a compliance rate of 40% within 1 year is the objective of this paper. This includes  imposing fines on those who do not segregate the waste and ensuring regular waste collection with the  management of resources so that people are not compelled to use rivers as dumping sites. 

2. Improvement in the recycling process for low-value plastics: Enhancement of recycling procedure for low-value plastics such as polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE),  and multilayered plastic; often discarded due to their low economic value and complexity in recycling  through effective strategies that can reduce the disposal of plastics in the rivers. 

3. Strengthening Regulation Mechanism for Plastic Waste Management: Strengthen and enforce regulations related to plastic production, usage, and disposal, with a focus on  reducing plastic entering into rivers through the mechanism of circular economy and Waste Water  Treatment Plans. 

4. Enhancing Waste Collection and Management Services: Improve waste collection services' efficiency and reliability, particularly in rural, urban, and semi-rural  areas, to prevent illegal dumping and burning of plastic waste through service consistency and  implementation strategies.

5. Change in the psychological aspect of people: Increase the awareness in people and make them responsible at psychological level, that plastic  wastes are harmful for them and for their future generations through various programs. 

6. Addressing plastic pollution in Water Resources: With an aim for a 50% reduction in plastic waste in rivers by 2030; to mitigate the impact of plastic  pollution on Nepal’s water resources by implementing targeted clean-up and prevention strategies.  Innovative solution measures like great bubble barriers and drones can be used to address the existing  pollution. 

This policy paper is therefore made with the objective of saving the climatic condition by saving the  aquatic ecological system. It aims to mitigate the problem of plastic waste from the base level and  clearance of the waste that has been collected over the years due to recklessness, causing pollution in  rivers. 

Analysis of the current situation of Rivers in Nepal

Rivers in Nepal are severely polluted by plastics, which have become one of the most pervasive pollutants.  According to the data of the World Bank it is estimated that Nepal produces about 4,900 tons of solid waste  every year, of which 13 percent is plastic waste where even around 20 percent of generated waste is not  treated effectively. The daily use of plastic bags ranges around 4,700,000 to 4,800,000 in Kathmandu. In  Nepal, 16 percent of urban waste is plastic, which is 2.7 tons of daily plastic garbage  production (Molden et al., 2018). 

Many rivers of Kathmandu, such as Bagmatai, and Vishnumati had a constant flow of clean and translucent  water during the 70’s and 80’s (Upadhyay, 2024). However, the study by the Nepal River Conservation Trust, 2015, shows that the water of the Bagmati River from 15 Km to 160 km is not suitable for aquatic  life, irrigation, or drinking. The pH level of water must be between 6.5 and 8.5, but the pH value of  Bagmati River  exceeded to 9 pH levels with presence of chemical components like high concentrations of ammonia, nitrate, total  dissolved solids, phosphate iron, and other harmful chemicals making it a dead pool for aquatic water  system (Milner et al., 2015).

Plastic is one of the most significant components of inorganic waste in Nepal, with varying amounts collected annually  across different municipalities. 

Plastic Waste Composition 

1. Household waste composition: Among the 58 municipalities, the generation of plastic waste is around 12  % of total solid waste. Waste generated by households majorly includes organic and inorganic wastes (Asian Development Bank, 2013). This includes waste materials like paper products, glass, metals, textiles,  rubber, leather, and others. Among all inorganic wastes generated from household plastic holds the most  percentage. 

2. Institutional waste composition: Solid waste generated from offices, schools, and colleges was  categorized as institutional waste. The composition analysis revealed that 21% of plastic waste is generated  from institutions like schools and colleges (Asian Development Bank, 2013). 

3. Commercial waste composition: The composition of solid waste from commercial establishments such  as shops, hotels, and restaurants around 22% of plastic waste is generated (Asian Development Bank, 2013). 

Hence, in total the generation of plastic waste from commercial waste highest i.e. 40%, Institutional sector  is 38% and 22% from the household sectors. 


Existing solid waste management system in Nepal: 

i. Collection and segregation of waste: The study found that 30% of the surveyed households in  municipalities had practiced segregation, indicating that 70% of the waste generated from the  households in municipalities directly goes into streams and rivers for the collection and disposal  by municipalities in the form of mixed waste. 

ii. Transport and final disposal : Sites of dumping of waste and treatment facilities are yet to be  identified by many municipalities and waste is currently being disposed of without treatment in  crude dumping sites creating waste mismanagement and leading to dumping of waste into rivers. 

Plastic pollution in rivers of Nepal is an urgent environmental challenge. Recent cleanup efforts  have highlighted the severity of this issue, with initiatives like the Sunkoshi River cleanup Campaign  removing over 24,575 kg of plastic waste (The Annapurna Express, 2024). National and local governments,  multilateral and bilateral development partners are involved in solid waste management in municipalities  including various organizations. The Solid Waste Management Act, 2068 and Local Government Operation Act, 2074 have set regulations for municipalities to take charge of the collection, transport, treatment, and final disposal of municipal solid waste. However, municipalities face shortage of financial and human resources  including effective management of technical and managerial skills. 

Microplastics in River Beds of Nepal
The study of microplastic in riverbeds of Nepal is in its infant stage. Very few researches have been conducted and are limited to rivers,  lakes, snow, and sediments. Due to the increasing concern about the plastic pollution in the environment,  Microplastic research is one of the growing areas of interest as it has higher adverse effects on the environment. The  presence of Microplastics in various rivers, lakes, and terrestrial environments is the area of study for the  researchers in Nepal. Due to lack of effective policies, approximately 20.7 kilo tons leak into the  environment which is 9% of the total consumption (Maharjan, 2024). Microplastics generally are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm in length. Major rivers of Nepal including Bagmati, Koshi, bishnumati, Manohara, Dhobi Khola, Rapti, and Trishuli are the most affected rivers from the plastic pollution. The presence of microplastics in Nepal's rivers indicates widespread plastic pollution, primarily from urban waste  disposal and inadequate waste management practices.

Nepal's Policy and Legal Framework Analysis
Nepal has formulated various laws showing their concern in mitigating waste, and its management and  target for eradication of hazardous substances that cause environmental damages. Over a period of time it  has been formulating various laws like; the Environment Protection Act, 2076, Waste Management National  Policy, 2079, and also has been included in national plans and policies of the year. 

The Waste Management National Policy, 2079 outlines several strategies to achieve its goals for plastic  waste management and river management. It discusses various laws and standards to classify and manage  waste according to its nature and prohibit waste disposal in sensitive areas such as rivers, lakes, and various  protected areas. The policy promotes recycling and composting and prioritizes the safe disposal of harmful  waste through infrastructure development and public-private partnerships (Waste Management National  Policy, 2079). Awareness campaigns will educate the public on waste management responsibilities. While  the policy aims to control the mixing and disposal of sewage to protect water bodies and encourage  partnerships with local entities, it lacks specific enforcement mechanisms and details on the infrastructural  resources. It includes monitoring and evaluation methods but does not specify how these will be conducted  or who will be responsible. Although the policy incorporates strategies like educating citizens, encouraging  research, and strengthening agency capacities, it does not provide incentives for a reduction in use at its  source, such as promoting alternatives like jute bags to single-use plastics that would prevent plastic waste  from entering water resources. Additionally, the National Water Resources Policy of Nepal (2077)  addresses the control of water pollution and disposal of waste into the water bodies. This acts as a  controlling and preventing mechanism to avoid further pollution through proper disposal and treatment of  polluted water, however, fails to address how to completely eradicate the existing plastics from rivers that  stay there for millions of years destroying the ecosystem. 

The Environment Protection Act, 2076 significantly referred to hazardous substances as any substances  listed in the Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes, which  deals with the international movement and disposal of dangerous waste. The Basel Convention was  amended in 2019 for the addition of a certain regulatory framework that is classified into three major categories;  non-hazardous plastic waste, mixed or contaminated plastic waste, and hazardous plastic waste. This act  includes provisions for the environmental protection fund to support conservation and pollution control. Chapter 7 outlines an environmental protection plant to be initiated at local and provincial levels, while Section 13 mandates proper hazardous waste management, and Section 14 specifies duties for handling, sorting, and disposing of plastic waste (Environment Protection Act, 2076). This Act also specifies fines for  violations but does not adequately address the plastic pollution in rivers. 

The Solid Waste Management Act, 2068 outlines a mandatory framework for the local bodies to manage  plastic wastes through segregation, collection, and disposal. This Act mandates segregation into organic and  inorganic waste at source. It promotes reduction, reuse and recycling of solid waste and prohibits discharges  of harmful chemicals and wastes; however, it does not address the plastic waste management in rivers. The  segregation mechanism set by it is not implemented well. 

The Plastic Bag Reduction and Regulation Directive of 2011, aimed to restrict the use and promote  production of plastic bags thinner than 20 microns. The directive, later amended to a minimum thickness of  40 microns, struggled due to weak enforcement mechanisms, limited penalties, and a lack of practical  alternatives. The resistance from the plastic bag industry led to a temporary stay order by the Supreme Court  of Nepal, delaying implementation and undermining its effectiveness (Bharadwaj, 2016). Inconsistent  enforcement further reduced its impact. In contrast, countries like Rwanda have successfully implemented  similar bans with strict enforcement and public cooperation. 

With an aim to conserve Nepal’s biodiversity to ensure the health and resilience of ecosystems including the  river ecosystem the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conversation formulated an action plan National  Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: 2014-2020 that outlines key strategies such as integrated pollution 

control, development and enforcement of laws, encouraging recycling, reuse, and community-based waste  management programs, however, does not address plastic waste directly. These strategies aim to protect  aquatic ecosystems and foster sustainability, but despite their integrated pollution control approach, they fail  to tackle plastic waste precisely. 

While analyzing various legal frameworks of Nepal, it seems these laws address the pollutants and  hazardous waste at border labels but fail to take an account of plastic waste in a very precise manner. There  seems to be a gap in the legal framework as it tries to prevent pollution and waste into resources, but fails to  tackle the measures to be taken to clean the existing plastic waste and pollutants. 

Analysis of International Framework 

Global Agreements

Plastic waste management is not a problem in a single country. The flow of water through rivers connects  countries making them responsible for each other’s plastic waste. Several international treaties and  agreements are formulated to address plastic waste management particularly addressing rivers and water  resources. Some of them are listed below: 

1. Basel Convention: This convention controls the Transboundary movement of hazardous wastes and  their disposal (Goldberg et al. 2019). Basel Convention was amended in 2019 to include plastic waste in the  category of hazardous waste, requiring Nepal to make changes in its Environmental law as well as for the  other countries for sound management of plastic waste. 

2. United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 

This convention highlights that states who are in this convention are obliged to prevent, reduce, and control  pollution from various sources for the protection of the Marine environment. Though Nepal is a landlocked  country, it still is a member as plastic waste is a global problem. It also emphasizes the global and regional  cooperation and enforcement mechanism as the responsibility of individual states. Additionally, it includes  provisions for providing technical assistance for the developing nations to meet the requirement for  pollution controls. 

3. Global Plastic Treaty 

This treaty is set among the 172 member countries of the UN, aiming to combat plastic pollution, and  focusing on environmental protection. It is inspired by International Environmental Agreements (IEA) in the  past, emphasizing reduced plastic usage, finding substitution, and improving recycling and waste  management. Though it does not directly target rivers, the measures applied can be fruitful for the  prevention of disposal of waste into the river system ensuring a better river system. 

4. United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme 

The motive of this program is plastic waste management in the River to eliminate the long-term discharge of  plastics into marine and freshwater environments and promote a circular economy for plastics with an aim  to encourage regional, national, and international actions for sustainability. 

These global agreements help the countries to collaborate and exchange suggestions for the better  management of plastic waste in freshwaters in a holistic way as the water in the rivers is borderless causing  an impact to the water resources for other countries as well.

International Regional Strategies

Various Countries have gone from the polluted river to the clean water by applying various legal  frameworks. For the protection of the Rhine River, an agreement among the European countries had been  made. The Netherlands, Germany, and the United Kingdom follow the European Union laws through which it  followed the directive to reduce plastic waste including the Single-Use Plastics Directive, 2019 (Elliot et al.,  2020). Additionally, the Dutch Waste Management Act includes provisions to manage plastic waste and  prevent it from entering water bodies. The approaches used by The Netherlands are river clean-up  campaigns organized to manually remove plastics and other waste from the Rhine. It has employed  advanced technologies like the “Great Bubble Barrier” that creates a curtain of air bubbles across the rivers  to push plastic waste to the surface, making it easier to collect (Eveleigh, 2023). These strategies can be  applied in Nepal with the proper infrastructural development. Japan has been using drones and surveillance  systems to identify and target areas that have higher concentrations of plastic waste and monitor it which  can be a smart way to remove existing plastic wastes from the rivers. Another thing that Japan sets itself  ahead of many countries is a psychological understanding of its citizens who consider themselves  responsible for the waste thrown, acquiring the second highest plastic management Index (Heinrich Boll  Foundation, 2022). India has initiated strategies like placing barriers in the river to catch the floating plastics  in the Sabarmati River. This strategy seems effective to catch the instant plastic waste that has been floating  from one river to the other. Nepal can take insight regarding effectiveness of such campaigns and  improve the aquatic ecosystem. Many countries like Rwanda and European nations have completely banned single-use plastic and use a circular economy for the better management of plastic waste. 

Recommendation and Implementation

The government of Nepal should make certain adjustments to the existing policies and introduce a new  regulation that would precisely address the plastic waste management in the ecosystem. Looking at the pH  values of the rivers and the effects of the plastics in the aquatic ecosystem, this problem should be addressed  at a fast track. Government should support the research and innovative strategies on impact of plastic  pollution on river ecosystems and human health in Nepal and innovative solutions as per the features of  Nepalese systems. For example: If we make the plastic water bottle caps inseparable from each other then it  would foster a reuse and recycle mechanism. These kinds of small innovations can cause great impact that  must be funded by the government. 

The circular economy system as applied by Rwanda seems to be an effective way to manage plastic  waste that would also support the principles of 3R; Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. Moreover, it can add the  EPR policy which would make the corporate sectors to design recyclable and sustainable products and  manufacturing processes for industrial duties. Stakeholders should ensure that new policies are inclusive and  practical and present revised policies in the parliament for approval and efficient enactment within 3-6  months.

Improvised waste collection and segregation requirements from the households can play a significant role in  Plastic Waste management to prevent it from getting disposed of in the rivers. The enhanced segregation  from households can lead to improvised waste collection and utilization of organic waste for economic  benefits. 

The government can ban the use of plastic materials and throw plastics and spoons with alternatives  like leaf plates which also show the traditional essence of Nepalese society and leaf cups that would be  another innovative strategy. The jute bags can be a replacement for single-use plastic bags which are long lasting as well. While applying a ban on plastic materials with high taxes, the government must uplift  sustainable production companies with a tax exemption or reduction. For the purposes where plastics are  necessary, there shall be a licensing provision applied equally in every state of Nepal from the community  level for effective implementation. 

Plastic waste can be reduced through the psychological enhancement of the public. Making the public  realize that the wastes that are disposed of in the rivers are causing an impact on their health, and future  generation and affecting the economy is an effective measure. It would make the higher voluntary engagement  of the public at community and national level. The wastewater treatment plant of Nepal must be made  effective and efficient that separates the sewage from water. Enhanced WasteWater Treatment Plant has other economic benefits that can be useful to cover the infrastructural development cost through its by-products like biogas, and generating electricity with the health benefits and tourism attraction. The  government should use a visionary approach through various awareness campaigns through digital  platforms and make people clear of the results of their accomplishments.  

The government can fund the startup companies that would take responsibility for the reuse of plastic waste  and recycling it. The technologies can be used to upgrade and create useful items from plastic waste. This  fund would provide grants, low-interest loans, and technical assistance to startups developing innovative  solutions for reducing, recycling, and management of plastic waste. Priority will be given to projects that  demonstrate significant environmental sustainability and reduce pollution. The government may take an equity stake in startups to provide them with capital while sharing in future profits. Foster collaborations between government industry and academia to develop and implement new technologies and practices in plastic  waste management.  

Economic incentive practices should be taken further by the government or concerned authority; this  concept aims to implement economic instruments such as waste disposal fees, pay-as-you-throw schemes,  or subsidies for recycling programs to encourage proper waste management systems. Here, the government  should allocate a specific tender process, ensuring transparency and accountability in the use of public  funds. The government can formulate green certification programs for businesses that demonstrate  significant reductions in plastic use and waste which would take 3-6 months if done at a fast pace. 

Unmanaged urbanization is a major problem in the urban areas. During the Monsoon, floods enter into the  cities of Kathmandu riverside settlement. The unmanaged urbanization and encroachment of land around the  river made it smaller, leading to vulnerability to flood. The flood takes away the plastic waste from the land  making it more contaminated. So, management of the illegal urbanization at the riverside must be done for  disaster management as well as plastic waste management. 

The government should invest and make proper utilization of technologies like drones for the tracking of  plastic waste can help to clean the areas that are highly affected by plastic waste. Dredging is another  effective mechanism for the extraction of plastic waste from the riverbeds. Great Bubble Barriers can create  a curtain of air bubbles across rivers and push plastics to the surface where they can be collected. 

River flows freely, making the Microplastic dissolved in the river of Nepal, a concern for India, and other  nations as well. The government can use a collaborative approach with China and India for innovative  solutions. It can make the ban on the import of harmful plastics more effective as the open border can lead  to illegal supply which can be controlled through equal efforts from both countries. Collaboration with other  countries can lead to the benefits of getting innovative strategies from one another and faster solutions.The  global treaties in which Nepal is involved can be used effectively by providing training to the officials  engaged in the plastic waste management with the adequate ways for the effective plastic waste  management. 

These recommendations can be implemented well with division into 3 phases represented below: 

1. Phase 1 (0-6 months): Launch nationwide household waste segregation programs using social media  platforms for better engagement of youths and improve waste collection efficiency making it a  trend with attractive slogans. Begin innovative tech projects like Great Bubble Barriers and  drones for assessment of illegal dumping with the encouragement of startups for the youths. At this stage, municipal waste collection strategies are improved through training and workshops for the  officials involved. 

2. Phase 2 (6-12 months): Strengthen plastic waste regulations, enhance recycling infrastructures, and  promote the circular economy. 

3. Phase 3 (12-24 months): Scale up successful technologies with other methods like WasteWater  Treatment Plans, enforce strict penalties, and implement educational campaigns to change public behavior with collaborative approach with neighboring countries for plastic waste management in  rivers. 

4. Monitoring: Continuous monitoring must be made effective for evaluation and adaptation of  effective strategies. 

Hence, in this way Nepal can formulate effective ways for eradication of plastic waste from the rivers  and protect the rivers for the future generation and meet the sustainable development goals. 

Global best practices are also essential for providing valuable insights. Technologies such as great bubble  barriers and drones for the identification of affected areas can be an effective measures. Additionally,  community clean-up initiatives can help reduce pollution levels. Economic incentives focused on effective  waste recycling and reuse with wastewater treatment can drive both environmental and economic benefits.  International cooperation and the adoption of strategies from other nations can further support Nepal’s  efforts for a sustainable future and river health. Ultimately, tackling plastic pollution is a necessity for public  health. With coordinated action and commitment, Nepal can transform the conditions of the rivers.